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This resources discusses the different parts and functions of academic paragraphs. Academic paragraphs are usually well-developed paragraphs that use evidence to support a single, specific claim. They are usually longer and denser than paragraphs in other types of writing (e.g. newspapers, magazines, etc.).

It's helpful to think about an academic paragraph as having three main sections: 1. Claim, 2. Evidence, and 3. Warrant.

CLAIM

1. First sentence / Topic sentence
Here, you should introduce your reader to this paragraph's main idea, which, in this case, should be one part of your definition, or criteria. Really good topic sentences will also present your thesis link. You can think of the topic sentence as your paragraph's road map.

For instance, a topic sentence may look something like this:

Poison's “Every Rose Has Its Thorn” is a sad, resigned song (thesis link) because the singer is looking at a relationship that is coming to an end. (criteria)

2. Second sentence / Supporting sentence
Further explain your criteria if necessary.

The tone of the song give the listener the feeling that love is something that hurts.

EVIDENCE

3. Sentences three through six(ish) / Supporting sentences
Support your topic sentence with examples, using description or quotes from the song.

The song begins with the singer lying in bed with his love. Even though they are physically close, the two people are emotionally distanced. We can see this when the singer says “we're still miles apart inside.”

WARRANT

4. Final supporting sentences
Explain why the quote shows what you think it shows. Convince us!

The idea of being miles apart means that the two lovers in the song aren't in the same place emotionally. They are separated by how they feel for each other.

5. Summary sentence
Your summary sentence ends the paragraph. You may sum up the points you made in the paragraph, gracefully restate your topic sentence, relate the paragraph back to the original idea (thesis), transition to the next paragraph, or a combination of these things.

Throughout the song, the tone remains sad, and the singer seems to be giving up on the relationship.

Combined

All together, this paragraph would look something like this:

Poison's “Every Rose Has Its Thorn” is a sad, resigned song because the singer is looking at a relationship that is coming to an end. The song begins with the singer lying in bed with his love. Even though they are physically close, the two people are emotionally distanced. We can see this when the singer says “we're still miles apart inside.” The idea of being miles apart means that the two lovers in the song aren't in the same place emotionally. They are separated by how they feel for each other. Throughout the song, the tone remains sad, and the singer seems to be giving up on the relationship.

This resources discusses some uses for commas, as well as common errors that writers make when using commas.

Six Common Uses for Commas

1. Introductory Phrases and Clauses

Introductory phrases and clauses are groups of words that begin sentences. These groups of words contain neither the main subject nor main verb of the sentence, so it is important to set them apart from the independent clause of the sentence. An introductory phrase or clause can't stand alone as a sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause with a comma.

Intro phrases and clauses can be short (even just a single word):

• Generally, I don't like Pop Tarts.
• Throughout his life, Immanuel Kant was thoroughly confused.

Introductory phrases and clauses can also be longer. You can sometimes identify them by looking for prepositions like When, If, As, Although, and Because.

• If John is successful in returning the movie without paying the late fee, we will never rent at Hollywood Video again.
• As you can see from my 40-page research paper, Albert Einstein loved to roller skate.
• Because a gang of thieves stole my car last night, I wasn't able to drive to work.

2. Joining Independent Clauses with FANBOYS

Commas can also be used to join independent clauses—but not by themselves! Remember, two independent clauses joined by a comma is still a run-on sentence. To connect independent clauses, you need to use a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a.k.a. FANBOYS. Just in case you've forgotten, FANBOYS is the acronym F or, A nd, N or, B ut, O r, Y et, and S o . Use any of these little connecting words with a comma to connect independent clauses in a sentence.

• I love disco dancing, but it seems like I'm the only one.
• Ivan lost his hat, so we went back to the mall to look for it.
• That bass has been in my family for a long time, and I'm the only one who knows how to play it.

3. Between Modifiers

Modifiers are describing words. There are two main kinds: adjectives (words that describe a noun) and adverbs (words that describe a verb). If multiple modifiers describe the same word, a comma separates the modifiers.

• The old, broken hammer didn't work very well.
• I spilled soda all over my new, expensive computer.
• I quickly, forcefully ate my snow cone.

4. Lists

When you have a list of three or more things in a sentence, you need commas between the things in your list.

• The Declaration of Independence guarantees life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
• When I go camping, I always bring a book, a bean bag chair, and a can opener.

5. Parenthetical Phrases

Fancy grammar people, in their fancy grammar hats, call parenthetical phrases “Nonrestrictive Clauses.” But we'll define a parenthetical phrase as extra information separate from the primary thought of the sentence. Some people call these phrases “interrupters” because they are set apart from the main sentence by commas and “interrupt” the man idea of the sentence. For example:

The movie, which was three-hours long, turned out to be really good.

The fact that the movie lasted three hours isn't essential to the main idea of the sentence: that the movie was good. It's extra information. Therefore, the writer set off the phrase with commas on either side of it.

Sometimes setting off parenthetical phrases from the main sentence can really affect the meaning of the sentence. Consider:

• The employee who left work early avoided being stuck in the blizzard.
• The employees, who left work early, avoided being stuck in the blizzard.

In the first sentence, only the employees who left early avoided the blizzard. In the second, all of the employees avoided it. In this case, the commas tell the reader where the extra information in the middle of the sentence begins and where it ends.

6. Quotations

When you're quoting someone, commas are your friends. Use them to set off quoted language in a sentence from the attribution (who is speaking the quoted language). You'll notice, too, that commas (and periods) often go inside quotation marks.

• “To be, or not to be,” asked Hamlet.
• “Your existential crisis is getting quite trite,” said his mother.
• Hamlet replied, “Fine. By the way, have you seen my sword?”

Commas Gone Wrong!

1. The comma splice

The comma splice is a particular hazardous error because it's very discombobulating for the reader. A comma splice occurs when the writer tries to join two independent clauses with only a comma (and no FANBOYS). The reader thinks they're getting one thing—a dependent clause after the comma. But they're actually getting a complete thought following the comma.

• INCORRECT: I really love grammar, it is my favorite thing.
• CORRECT: I really love grammar. It is my favorite thing.

2. Rogue commas between subjects and verbs

In English, you'll almost never find a comma between a subject and its verb (and rarely between a verb and its object). The obvious exception, of course, is when you place two commas around a parenthetical phrase that appears between the two. Here are some dopey, silly examples:

• INCORRECT: The very small walrus, ate his toast every Tuesday night.
• CORRECT: The very small walrus ate his toast every Tuesday night.
• INCORRECT: Bill threw the ball, to Jimmy.
• CORRECT: Bill threw the ball to Jimmy.

3. Commas after independent clause when dependent clause follows it

When a dependent clause follows an independent clause (and it's closely related in subject), you don't need to separate the two with a comma.

• INCORRECT: He was looking at his phone, while he was driving.
• CORRECT: He was looking at his phone while he was driving.
• INCORRECT: Nora told me to relax, because I was kind of freaking out.
• CORRECT: Nora told me to relax because I was kind of freaking out.

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Works Consulted

• “Purdue OWL: Commas.” Purdue Online Writing Lab, 2017. https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/607/01/. Accessed 1 March 2017.
• The Writing Center. The Writing Center at George Mason University, 2017. http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/. Accessed 1 March 2017.
• UNC Writing Center. The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill, 2014. writingcenter.unc.edu. Accessed 1 March 2017.

This resource is meant to give you different editing strategies to help revise your writing. Editing usually comes after you have made significant revision to a first draft of writing. When writers edit, they focus on the larger structure of the writing, coherence, expanding sections and paragraphs, adding evidence to support claims, and making sure sentences clearly communicate what they are meant to communication to the reader.

Double-Check Thesis Statement

Read your assignment prompt again, and then read your thesis statement. Does the thesis directly respond to the assignment? Does it answer the question(s) of the prompt? Does it address the assignment?

Make a Checklist

After you've finished a draft, go back to the assignment prompt to make sure that you've done all the things that your assignment asks you to do. Using the prompt, make a checklist of all the parts of the assignment, and then use that checklist to make sure that your draft has done all these things.

Add Transitions

Read the last sentence of each paragraph and then the first sentence of the next paragraph. Can you add words like Additionally, Furthermore, Similarly if the ideas of the paragraphs are similar? Conversely, can you add words like Conversely, However, Even though if the ideas are different?

Reverse Outlining

After you've completed a draft of your essay, circle your thesis statement, then read each body paragraph and write down the main idea of each paragraph in the margins. Once you've outlined your essay, ask yourself: Does my essay move logically? Do all the paragraphs relate to my thesis? Do any of the paragraphs seem off-topic or out of place? Am I missing any important points that I could write a new paragraph to address? Rearrange or revise any paragraphs that seem out of order or off-topic.

Highlight Claims and Evidence

Using a highlighter or a highlighting tool in Microsoft Word or Google Docs, go through your essay and mark all your claims in one color and your evidence in another. (A claim is a statement that the reader much be convinced is value or true.) After you've highlighted both things, first look for claims without evidence. Where do you need to add support? Next, look for paragraphs with minimal amounts of evidence. Where can you add more support?

Introduce Quotations

Your voice should be the first and last voice the reader hears when you quote someone else. Look at all your quotations in the essay and make sure that you have introduced them well. Do your readers know who's speaking in the quotation? Do they know where the quotation comes from? And finally, do that understand why the quotation matters to your argument? If not, add this information to help your reader understand the quotations in your essay.

Add Topic Sentences

Read through each body paragraph and try to add a sentence at the beginning that captures the main idea. Look for paragraphs that begin with quotes and write a topic sentence that captures the main idea or claim.

Add Thesis Links

Add a sentence at the end of each body paragraph that relates the claim of the paragraph to the essay's thesis. Why is this smaller point important to the essay's overall argument? Look for paragraphs that simply end with a quote. Add summary sentences that help the reader explain how the paragraph fits into the essay's thesis.

Expand Existing Paragraphs

Ask how and why questions. Read through each sentence and see if there is more to say about any statements or claims that you are making. A good observation or idea is rarely explained in one sentence. Asking these questions, even when you think you've explained yourself, will help you be detailed, descriptive, and more analytical.

Also, look for places to add more evidence—quotations, examples, outside support.

Add New Paragraphs

Look for paragraphs that contain more than one idea. If you have a paragraph with two or three different ideas, these ideas are usually underdeveloped. Break each idea into its own paragraph and add evidence and explanation to expand them into fully formed paragraphs.

Vary Sentence Length

Look for overly long or complicated or short and incomplete sentences. Use long sentences to show connections, shorter ones for emphasis. Try beginning some sentences with the subject, and begin others with introductory phrases.

Look for Overly General Words

Good arguments are specific. Be on the lookout for overly general or absolute words such as Always, Never, All, None, Impossible, No. These words make claims overly broad and easy to refute. If you find yourself using these words in your claims, see if there is a way to rewrite them to qualify your claim.

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Works Consulted

• The Writing Center. The Writing Center at George Mason University, 2017. http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/. Accessed 30 Jan. 2017.
• UNC Writing Center. The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill, 2014. writingcenter.unc.edu. Accessed 30 Jan. 2017.
• Transition Words. Transition Words, 1994. https://msu.edu/~jdowell/135/transw.html. Accessed 30 Jan. 2017.

This resource gives you strategies for proofreading your writing. Proofreading is usually the last step of the writing process to ensure that your writing is free of typos and other surface errors that can distract from your message and meaning.

1. Separate yourself from the writing

The trick to proofreading is to think less like a writer and more like a reader. The more mental space you have from the writing of the essay, the easier it will be to proofread. Avoid proofreading right after writing. Give yourself a day or a few hours between writing and proofreading. Take a run. Wash some dishes. Knock out some physics homework. Give your eyes and mind the break they need to see your essay as a new piece of writing.

2. Change the medium and text

You can make your writing seem less familiar by changing the way you read and how your writing looks. If you've been staring at your essay on a screen, print it out to proofread. Even better, change the font and size of the text (just remember to change it back!). Switching from Times New Roman, 12pt to Courier 14pt can help you see your writing with fresh eyes.

3. Be aware of patterns of errors

Make a list of your most common errors, whether they are run-on sentences, commas, or spelling. These are the errors you'd want to pay special attention to after you're finished with the first draft.

4. Proofread for only one kind of error at a time

It's nearly impossible to catch every issue at the same time. Using the list of your most common errors, read your essay looking only for the first error on the list. Focusing just on one type of issue helps find those issues. Next, read for the second-most common issue, and then the third.

5. Read aloud

Find a quiet place and read your essay out loud slowly, as if you were reading it to a small child. Listen to the way words and sentences sound and work. If something sounds weird or awkward, it probably still needs work. Your ears will catch errors that your eyes will breeze over. If a sentence sounds incomplete or overly long, chances are that it's a fragment or run-on. If you feel awkward about listening to yourself online, try a Read Aloud App either on your phone or on your computer, like https://ttsreader.com/.

6. Read Backwards

It's easy to miss mistakes when you see your essay as a single piece of writing. Focusing on individual sentences help you notice errors you'd normally miss. Beginning with the last sentence and reading the essay from the end to the beginning will force you to focus on individual sentences.

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Works Consulted

• The Writing Center. The Writing Center at George Mason University, 2017. http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/. Accessed 30 Jan. 2017.
• UNC Writing Center. The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill, 2014. writingcenter.unc.edu. Accessed 30 Jan. 2017.

Many writers struggle with sentence-boundary issues. The two biggest sentence-boundary issues are fragments and run-on sentences. This resource gives you information about these issues and shows you different strategies for finding and fixing them.

Independent Clauses

To fix sentence-boundary issues, it's important to understand two different types of clauses. Let's start with independent clauses. An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a complete thought. Every sentences needs three things to exist:

1. A subject (the main actor in the sentence)
2. A main verb (the main action of the sentence—sometimes called a “predicate”)
3. A complete thought

An independent clause can be its own sentence. This, for example, is an independent clause:

Derek watched Game of Thrones in one week.

In this independent clause, “Derek” is the subject and “watched” is the main verb. It expresses a complete thought.

Dependent Clauses

As its name suggests, a dependent clause is not independent—it depends on something else to exist. However, dependent clauses can be tricky because they have two of the three things independent clauses have: a subject and main verb. What's missing, though, is a complete thought. Here are some examples of dependent clauses:

• After we run by the store.
• If you decide to buy the refrigerator.
• Since we didn't go see the movie.

You might notice that these dependent clauses start with words that suggest something comes after the sentence. (What happens AFTER we run by the store? What happens IF we buy the fridge?) Dependent clauses often begin with prepositions (“after”) or subordinating conjunctions (“if” and “since”). If someone were to give a speech consisting just of these sentences, the audience would be completely unsatisfied and not a little baffled.

Fragments

A fragment is an incomplete sentence. There are two ways that sentence fragments happen. First, they could be missing either a subject or main verb (or both!). Here are some fragments that lack those things:

• Went home in a fit of anger.
• Dave, since he was already home.
• Reading this book for what feels like hours.

Secondly, fragments can be dependent clauses masquerading as complete sentences. These are often the trickiest to spot and correct. If you have trouble finding these types of fragments, you might try reading your writing out load (your ear can sometimes catch these errors better than your eye).

Run-ons

Run-on sentences have the opposite problem that fragments have. There's too much sentence! Technically speaking, run-on sentences happen when there are two or more independent clauses in a sentence that are incorrectly punctuated.

Here's an example of a run-on sentence:

I love this new Dave Matthews Band record it is like eating an entire loaf of bread.

There are two independent clauses here: 1) “I love this new Dave Matthews Band record” 2) “it is like eating an entire loaf of bread.” This sentence can be very confusing to a reader because we are taught to expect one complete thought per sentence. There are a few ways we can fix this run-on.

1. Break it into separate sentence. Since a run-on has two or more independent clauses (and since an independent clause can stand alone as its own sentence) you can turn each independent clause into its own sentence.
   • → I love this new Dave Matthews Band record. It is like eating an entire loaf of bread.
2. Add comma with a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS). These seven small joining words (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, and So) can hook up independent clauses with a comma. But be careful! A comma by itself can't join independent clauses—that would be a “comma splice,” a type of a run-on.
   • → I love this new Dave Matthews Band record, and it is like eating an entire loaf of bread.
3. Add a semicolon. Semicolons can join closely related independent clauses. You don't use FANBOYS when using a semicolon like this.
   • → I love this new Dave Matthews Band record; it is like eating an entire loaf of bread.
4. Add a subordinating conjunction. You can turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause to fix a run-on sentence.
   • → I love this new Dave Matthews Band record because it is like eating an entire loaf of bread.

Finding and Fixing Fragments & Run-ons

Fixing sentence-boundary errors is relatively easy once you understand what each sentence needs. Finding them in your writing is more challenging. These tips can help you practice finding sentence-boundary errors.

1. Read your writing out loud. Often, your ear will catch incomplete thoughts and sentences with more than one complete thought better than your eyes.
2. Turn your sentences into yes/no questions. For example, you might ask “Do I love this new Dave Matthews Band record it is like eating an entire loaf of bread?” That helps you find sentences with more than one main idea/independent clause.
3. Look for sentences with commas in the middle of the sentence. These often have higher chances than usual of being comma splices.
4. Look for sentences beginning with prepositions, subordinating conjunctions and words ending in “-ing.” These often have higher chances of being fragments.

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Works Consulted

• “Avoiding Fragments with Dependent Clauses.” The Writing Center. The Writing Center at George Mason University, 2018. writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/avoiding-fragmentswith-dependent-clauses. Accessed 2 July 2018.
• “Fragments and Run-ons.” The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill, 2018. writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/fragments-and-run-ons/. Accessed 2 July 2018.
• “Run-on Sentences.” The Writing Center. The Writing Center at George Mason University, 2018. writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/run-on-sentences. Accessed 2 July 2018.
• “Fragments and Run-Ons.” The OWL at Purdue. Purdue University, 2018. owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/1/33. Accessed 2 July 2018.

Summary and analysis are two important tools of academic writing. However, sometimes it can be difficult to tell the difference between the two. This resource will help you understand how summary differs from analysis and how each is used in academic writing.

Summary

Summary is a brief understanding of the main point (thesis) or most important points (supporting points) of a text or source. When writing a summary, the writer should put the main idea or point in their own words. A summary is usually much shorter than the source it is summarizing, typically just a few sentences.

Summaries are objective

Summaries should only focus on communicating the main idea(s) of a source. In a summary, the writer should avoid commenting on or evaluating the source. The writer's tone and word choice should stay as objective as possible so that the writer's view and opinions about the source are not included in the summary.

What to include in a summary

Summaries usually include information about the source, such as title, author, and publication information. Summaries also usually try to answer “What,” “Who,” and “Where” questions.

Why write summary

Summaries are meant to introduce and/or provide background for a source. Writers use summaries to describe the source they are using, as opposed to evaluating or commenting on it. Summary often precede analysis and help prepare the reader for the writer's ideas about the source.

Analysis

Unlike summary, analysis relies on the observations, ideas, evaluations, and inferences of the writer. When writing analysis, it is the writer's job to comment on the source and explain its meaning, purpose, or effect. Typically, analysis is longer than the piece that it is analyzing.

Analysis is subjective & interpretive

When writing analysis, your job is to break your source into smaller pieces or elements and examine them for purpose, meaning, or effect. Analysis "interprets" those pieces, explaining their meaning and how they relate to the larger source. The job of analysis is to break a source into smaller parts and explain how those parts work together.

Analysis goes beyond the obvious

While summary is concerned with “What,” “Who,” and “Where” questions, analysis is more about answering “How” and “Why” questions. Instead of simply relaying the main idea or message of a source, analysis looks at smaller pieces of the source, explaining how those pieces work and why (or why not) they may be effective, successful, true, or good.

What to include in analysis

Analysis should include your judgments, evaluations, and claims about meaning. It should offer a way to think about or interpret a source. Analysis is an important part of arguments, so sections of analysis usually include references to your thesis or the argument of your essay.

Why write analysis

Analysis helps you support your essay's thesis by explaining how and why different sources fit into your argument. Analysis offers your readers an interpretation of the sources and why they support your point of view or claim.

Sample Summary and Analysis

Summary

Star Wars is an American movie that was released in 1977. Often described as a “space opera,” the movie focuses on the Rebel Alliance, an interstellar revolutionary faction lead by a princess, and its attempts to overthrow the totalitarian regime of the Empire by blowing up its new space station, the Death Star. During the film, Luke Skywalker, a young farm boy, discovers the mysterious cult of “Jedi” that uses a mystical power called the “Force.” After joining the rebellion alongside a pirate and his fury friend, Luke helps the Rebels destroy the Death Star.

Analysis

In order to truly understand Star Wars, viewers must put it in the correct context—the seemingly simple space opera is really a nearly perfect postmodern film. From the famous opening scroll of the prologue to Vader's samurai helmet to the John Ford-esque Western antihero of Han Solo, the sum total of Star Wars is much more than a summer blockbuster (though it was that too). It is a mash-up of movies references spanning nearly a hundred years that, when assembled, brings to life not only a galaxy far, far away but also an endlessly referential film that rejects a fixed genre in favor of endless contexts and interpretations.

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Works Consulted

• The Writing Center. The Writing Center at George Mason University, 2017. http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/. Accessed 30 Jan. 2017.
• UNC Writing Center. The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill, 2014. writingcenter.unc.edu. Accessed 30 Jan. 2017.
• “Analysis and Summary.” College of the Sequoias. College of the Sequoias, 2017. www.cos.edu/Library/WritingCenter/Resources/Pages/Analysis-and-Summary.aspx. Accessed 31 March 2017.

This resource discusses thesis statements: what they are, how they are used, and how to write/improve thesis statements.

What is a Thesis Statement?

A thesis statement is usually a sentence (or two) that neatly and concisely summarizes the main argument or point that you're making in an essay. It is a statement of your position on a subject or topic. It should also serve as a sort of “roadmap” for your essay, telling the reader where they will go when they read your paper and how they will get there.

A good Thesis Statement is:

• Specific
• Narrow
• Debatable
• Argumentative

Every good thesis statement has two parts: the WHAT and the WHY/HOW.

The WHAT part of the thesis statement should state your argument or position and be debatable, e.g. “Olympic ice dancing is not really a sport.” This is certainly debatable; someone could argue that it is, in fact, a sport. This statement also serves as the main idea of the essay. Just from reading this, your reader knows that what is to come in the essay will present arguments showing that ice dancing isn't really a sport.

This part also gives the reader a reason to keep reading, to discover the reasons you say that ice dancing isn't really a sport. The WHY/HOW part of the thesis statement gives your reasoning behind your argument. This is often the most difficult and important part of developing a thesis statement. Most of the time, this part of the thesis comes second (though there is no reason it can't come first), usually after a word like “because.”

EXAMPLE: Olympic ice dancing is not really a sport because judges score it, skaters do not compete directly against each other, and there is no ball or puck involved.

After reading this, your reader has a very good idea of what to expect in your essay. They expect that you will argue against ice dancing being a sport for three very specific reasons. They can also anticipate how your essay will be structured. Chances are, you will begin by looking at the judging system, move to discussing the lack of direct competition, and close with the fact that ice dancing doesn't involve a ball or puck. (This also will help you, as a writer, organize your thoughts within the essay.)

Four Ways Thesis Statements Go Wrong

1. Your thesis is too general – Most of the time, you'll have a limited number of pages to make your argument. Therefore, your argument must be specific and narrow enough to be made in the space that you have. A good thesis statement is specific because it is reflective of a well-development argument.
   BAD: Baseball is a great game. (Why? Is it the greatest? Compared to what?)
   BETTER: Baseball is superior to other professional sports because of its unique demands for strategy and execution.
2. Your thesis is too broad – Sometimes we try to do too much with an argument. For example, the thesis statement Abortion is wrong will probably need a book-length paper to convincingly argue this well. The narrower you can make your argument, the better.
   BAD: World War II changed the way America thought about war. (Woah. Good argument. But you'll probably need a PhD and a 1,200-page book to make it.)
   BETTER: The preparations for D-Day changed the way America's military leadership thought about its World War II strategy.
3. Your thesis is a fact – You can't argue a fact, and a good thesis statement is both argumentative and debatable. You can argue about facts though.
   BAD: The University of North Carolina won the 2009 NCAA basketball championship. (Yup. No argument here. And no need to write a paper arguing it, either.)
   BETTER: The 2009 championship team of UNC was the best college basketball team of its decade.
4. Your thesis isn't an argument – A good thesis is always debatable; that is, someone could honestly and in good faith disagree with you for good reasons. An opinion isn't a fact. To paraphrase The Dude, it's just, like, your opinion, man.
   BAD: I don't really like Van Halen, or 80s rock in general.
   BETTER: Van Halen represents everything that is wrong with rock and roll in the 80s.
   EVEN BETTER: Van Halen's baroque guitar solos, fluffy lyrics, and over-the-top hedonism represent the reasons 80s rock is vastly inferior to the Grunge movement that succeeded it in the early 90s.

Often writing assignments have a minimum length. It can be frustrating when you're struggling to make an essay longer. This resource gives you seven concrete ways to expand an essay while also making it more detailed, descriptive, and analytical.

Expand individual paragraphs

1. Ask how and why questions. Read through each sentence and see if there is more to say about any statements or claims you are making. A good observation or idea is rarely explained in one sentence. Asking these questions, even when you think you've explained yourself, will help you be detailed, descriptive, and more analytical. (TIP: Give yourself a goal of adding two or three sentences to each existing paragraph. You'll be surprised at what you discover to say!)
2. Add (more) concrete examples and evidence. Making an argument is all about supporting it with evidence. A good way to do this is to show your argument in action in an example. The more complex or complicated the idea, the more examples you'll need.
3. Expand the introduction and/or conclusion. Now that you have a full draft of your essay, ask yourself what are some main ideas or concrete examples you use in the body of the essay that you could put in the intro to help give the reader a full picture of the main point(s) of your essay? You may even be able to write a brand new introduction now that you have your main points of the essay.
4. Add a sentence or two at the end of each paragraph summarizing (and/or refuting) the arguments presented in that paragraph. The last sentence of each paragraph should relate the paragraph's main idea back to the essay's thesis and explain how the paragraph supports or advances the argument of the essay.

Write new paragraphs

1. Look for paragraphs that contain more than one idea. If you have a paragraph with three different ideas, then these ideas are usually underdeveloped. Break each idea into its own paragraph and use the tools above to expand them into fully formed paragraphs.
2. Write a paragraph addressing opposing views. Try to think of one or two objections that your audience might have to your essay's argument, and then write a paragraph defending your argument from those opposing views.
3. Look for key terms or other information in your essay that your readers might not be familiar with. Write a paragraph that serves as an extended definition of those terms or provides background information that help your audiences better understand your subject and argument.

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Works Consulted/strong>

• Reid, E. Shelley. “30 Things to do with your essay in the up draft(s).” The Writing Center. The Writing Center at George Mason University, 2007. issuu.com/gmuwritingcenter/docs/30-things-to-do-with-your-essay-in-the-up-drafts. Accessed 4 April 2017.

The Reynolds ESL department has recommended these online resources for ESL writers.

English Page -  This site includes an exhaustive list of grammar topics and multiple practice exercises as well as quizzes for mastery. We recommend starting with the Grammar Book in the menu on left.

Purdue University OWL ESL Resources -  This site is a more advanced source for ESL students. Good review of combining sentences, punctuation, and plagiarism and ESL writers.

Washtenaw Community College ESL Online Resources -  This site provides links to multiple sites, including several that offer practice in speaking/oral/pronunciation review.

English Club -  These quizzes on a variety of grammar topics are basic, not advanced - some of the more successful ones cover infinitives/gerunds, irregular verbs, past perfect, past perfect continuous tenses.

Below is a collection of useful outside writing resources organized by the writing stage.

Pre-writing

• "Understanding Your Instructor's Prompt" GMU Writing Center
• "Brainstorming" UNC Writing Center
• "Writing Anxiety" UNC Writing Center
• "Audience" JMU Writing Center
• "Reading to Write" UNC Writing Center
• "Writer's Block" GMU Writing Center

Writing an Academic Paper

• "Quotation" UNC Writing Center
• "Writing Introductions" UT Writing Center
• "Introductions" UNC Writing Center
• "Thesis Statements" UNC Writing Center
• "Conclusions" UNC Writing Center
• Integrating Sources into Your Writing" PVCC Writing Center
• "Signal Phrases" GMU Writing Center
• "When to Summarize, Paraphrase, and Quote" GMU Writing Center

Grammar & Mechanics

• "Fragments and Run-ons" UNC Writing Center
• "Sentence Patterns" UNC Writing Center
• "Commas" UNC Writing Center
• "Style, Voice, and Tone" UMUC Writing Center
• "Subject-Verb Agreement" GMU Writing Center

Editing & Revising

• "Editing and Proofreading" UNC Writing Center
• "Revising" GMU Writing Center
• "23 Ways to Improve Your Draft" GMU Writing Center
• "Editing Checklist" GMU Writing Center

Citations

• Reynolds Library Guide: MLA
• Reynolds Library Guide: APA
• "APA Style Quick-Guide" GMU Writing Center
• "MLA Style Quick-Guide" GMU Writing Center
• "The Basics of MLA In-Text Citation" Scribbr
• Citefast.com: Reynolds Community College's Recommended Citation Generator

Keyboard Shortcuts

• "Keyboard Shortcuts" Readers Digest

Paraphrasing Tools

• "How to Paraphrase in 5 Easy Steps" Scribbr
• The Paraphrasing Self-Test Tool from Wenatchee Valley College

And check out all the resources from the Writing Center at UT Austin, now in printable downloads! Highlights include "Myths of College Writing" and "Code-Switching and Code-Meshing". They also have some excellent style guides for APA, MLA, and Chicago.